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For all intents and purposes, PostgreSQL has less of a need for CREATE PROCEDURE than other databases aside from looking more like other databases. For example in SQL Server -> 2005 - although you can write functions that return tables and so forth, you have to resort to writing CLR functions marked as unsafe to actually update data in a stored function. This gets pretty messy and has its own limitations so you have no choice but to use a stored procedures, which can not be called from within an SQL query. In MySQL 5.1 the abilities of functions are even more limiting - they can't even return a dataset. In PostgreSQL, you can write a function marked as VOLATILE that updates data and that can do all sorts of wacky things that are useful but considered by some to be perverse such as the following: Adding a total column to a crosstab query using crosstab function is a bit tricky. Recall we said the source sql should have exactly 3 columns (row header, bucket, bucketvalue). Well that wasn't entirely accurate. The crosstab(source_sql, category_sql) variant of the function allows for a source that has columns row_header, extraneous columns, bucket, bucketvalue . Don't get extraneous columns confused with row headers. They are not the same and if you try to use it as we did for creating multi row columns, you will be leaving out data. For simplicity here is a fast rule to remember. Extraneous column values must be exactly the same for source rows that have the same row header and they get inserted right before the bucket columns. As time goes by and with organic growth, this simple database you had that does one thing suddenly starts doing a lot of other things you hadn't initially planned for. Now to keep your sanity you really need the benefit of schemas for logical groupings. How do you retroactively do this? The answer is not quite as easy as one would hope. Ideally you would want to do a RENAME from public.sometable to newschema.sometable, but that doesn't work. The generic way of doing cross tabs (sometimes called PIVOT queries) in an ANSI-SQL database such as PostgreSQL is to use CASE statements which we have documented in the article What is a crosstab query and how do you create one using a relational database?. Often when you create crosstab queries, you do it in conjunction with GROUP BY and so forth. While the astute reader may conclude this from the docs, none of the examples in the docs specifically demonstrate that and the more useful example of crosstab(source_sql,category_sql) is left till the end of the documentation. Another not so obvious observation. You can define a type that say returns 20 bucket columns, but your actual crosstab need not return up to 20 buckets. It can return less and whatever buckets that are not specified will be left blank. With that in mind, you can create a generic type that returns generic names and then in your application code - set the heading based on the category source. Also if you have fewer buckets in your type definition than what is returned, the right most buckets are just left off. This allows you to do things like list the top 5 colors of a garment etc. Tuesday, March 18. 2008. Longer Answer: By strict definition it does not. PostgreSQL as of even 8.3 will not support the Create Procedure syntax nor the Call Level calling mechanism that defines a bonafide stored procedure supporting database (this is not entirely true), since EnterpriseDB does suport CREATE PROCEDURE to be compatible with Oracle. In PostgreSQL 8.4, this may change. Check out Pavel Stehule: Stacked Recordset and Pavel Stehule: First Real Procedures on PostgreSQL for details. Saturday, January 12. 2008. Tablefunc is a contrib that comes packaged with all PostgreSQL installations - we believe from versions 7.4.1 up (possibly earlier). We will be assuming the one that comes with 8.2 for this exercise. Note in prior versions, tablefunc was not documented in the standard postgresql docs, but the new 8.3 seems to have it documented at http://www.postgresql.org/docs/8.3/static/tablefunc.html. PostgreSQL 8.3 introduced a couple of new features that improves the processing of functions and makes plpgsql functions easier to write. These are as follows: Setting up PostgreSQL as a Linked Server in Microsoft SQL Server 64-bit. What is REST? Prior to PostgreSQL 8.1, people could yell and scream, but PostgreSQL doesn't support Output Parameters. As weird as it is for a function to support such a thing, PostgreSQL 8.1+ do support output parameters and ODBC drivers and such can even use the standard CALL interface to grab those values. Constraint Exclusion is a great thing, but it has some limitations and quirks one needs to be aware of that in some cases will prevent it from kicking in. Below are a couple of reasons why it sometimes doesn't work. Often times when you start a new database, you put all your tables and views in the public schema. For databases with few tables and all relatively commonly grouped data, the benefits of using schemas for logical groupings vs. the downside of having to reference it with the schema name is more trouble than its worth. Every once in a while you are tasked with an issue such as having to create logging fields in each of your tables or having to put like constraints on each of your tables or you need to Grant an X group or X user rights to a certain set of tables. Resulting output of our cross tabulation with total column looks like this: Friday, December 28. 2007. There must be some efficiency benefits to declaring something as a store procedure and having it called in that way. Not quite sure if anyone has done benchmarks on that. So for the time being PostgreSQL functions have the uncanny role of having a beak like a duck and the flexibility of a beaver, but having the makeup of a Platypus. Constraint Exclusion when it fails to work. We would like to thank Jeff Crumbley of IILogistics for providing many of these steps and informing us that Microsoft has finally released a 64-bit OLEDB for ODBC driver. crosstab(source_sql) is much trickier to understand and use than the crosstab(source_sql, category_sql) variant, but in certain situations and certain cases is faster and just as effective. The reason why is that crosstab(source_sql) is not guaranteed to put same named buckets in the same columns especially for sparsely populated data. For example - lets say you have data for CSCL for Jan Mar Apr and data for Phenol for Apr. Then Phenols Apr bucket will be in the same column as CSCL Jan's bucket. This in most cases is not terribly useful and is confusing. Adding a Total column to the crosstab query. The output of the above crosstab looks as follows: Contrary to some popular belief, REST is not a silver bullet nor was it designed to be. It doesn't work for all problems and web applications. Our personal opinion: REST is well suited for transporting data that will be consumed by various kinds of clients, but is not well suited for updating of data or where authenticated transactions are needed. Another thing stored procedures can usually do that functions can not is to return multiple result sets. PostgreSQL can simulate such behavior by creating a function that returns a set of refcursors . See this .NET example Getting full results in a DataSet object: Using refcursors way down the page, that demonstrates creating a postgresql function that returns a set of refcursors to return multiple result sets using the Npgsql driver. REST in PostgreSQL Part 2 A - The REST Server service with ASP.NET. Alternatively you can use psql to install tablefunc using something like the following command: path\to\postgresql\bin\psql -h localhost -U someuser -d somedb -f "path\to\postgresql\share\contrib\tablefunc.sql" intermediate - 6. Moving tables from one schema to another. People who have never used Microsoft Access or anything like it and consider themselves hard-core programmers or database purists, dismiss Microsoft Access as a dangerous child's toy, causing nothing but grief when real programmers and database administrators have to debug the disorganized mess of amateurs. They dream of the day when this nuisance is rid of and their company can be finally under the strict bureaucratic control of well-designed apps that no one cares to use. Download the npgsql 1.01 driver from pgfoundary - http://pgfoundry.org/projects/npgsql. For ASP.NET 2.0 you'll want - Npgsql1.0.1-bin-ms2.0.zip and for Mono.NET you'll want Npgsql1.0.1-bin-mono-2.0.zip. Unzip and place the files in bin folder of your web app project. To install tablefunc simply open up the share\contrib\tablefunc.sql in pgadmin and run the sql file. Keep in mind that the functions are installed by default in the public schema. If you want to install in a different schema - change the first line that reads SET search_path = public; Showcasing REST in PostgreSQL - The PreQuel. Recall we said that crosstab requires exactly 3 columns output in the sql source statement. No more and No less. So what do you do when you want your month crosstab by Item, Project, and months columns. One approach is to stuff more than one Item in the item slot by either using a delimeter or using an Array. We shall show the array approach below. At a glance it appears that PostgreSQL functions do all that stored procedures do plus more. So the question is, is there any reason for PostgreSQL to support bonafide stored procedures aside from the obvious To be more compatible with other databases and not have to answer the philosophical question, But you really don't support stored procedures? . In this article we shall provide some examples of using the contrib module - dblink to query local PostgreSQL databases and remote PostgreSQL databases. DbLink is probably most comparable in structure to SQL Server's OpenRowset functionality. It lacks the power of SQL Server's Linked Server approach or OPENQUERY that allows for synchronized joins between linked servers/databases and local tables and updates/inserts on linked servers. This makes it not terribly useful in cases where you need to join lots of data with local data. It does however come in handy for bulk copy operations from one database/server to another. People coming from SQL Server and MySQL often complain about how you can't query other databases from within a PostgreSQL database. In Microsoft SQL Server, there is a concept of querying across databases on the same server with dbname.dbo.sometable and querying across servers (even of different types e.g. Oracle) by setting up a linked server and doing something such as servername.dbname.dbo.sometable or using the OPENROWSET(..) or OPENQUERY(. ) syntax. There are a couple of key points to keep in mind which apply to both crosstab functions. Source SQL must always return 3 columns, first being what to use for row header, second the bucket slot, and third is the value to put in the bucket. crosstab except for the example crosstab3 ..crosstabN versions return unknown record types. This means that in order to use them in a FROM clause, you need to either alias them by specifying the result type or create a custom crosstab that outputs a known type as demonstrated by the crosstabN flavors. Otherwise you get the common a column definition list is required for functions returning "record" error. A corrollary to the previous statement, it is best to cast those 3 columns to specific data types so you can be guaranteed the datatype that is returned so it doesn't fail your row type casting. Each row should be unique for row header, bucket otherwise you get unpredictable results. Monday, April 28. 2008. The approach we often use is this one: --Resulting crosstab query -- Note: For this we don't need the order by month since the order of the columns is determined by the category_sql row order. Friday, April 25. 2008. Using DbLink to access other PostgreSQL Databases and Servers. The nice thing about having an information_schema is that it provides an easy way to generate scripts to do just that with plain SELECT statements. In PostgreSQL its even easier with the array_to_string functions and ARRAY functions, you can get the script in a single field result. In the following sections we'll demonstrate some examples of this. Using crosstab(source_sql) Setting up the PHP application. Thursday, December 27. 2007. How do you delete duplicate rows in a table and still maintain one copy of the duplicate? Note that the below examples can also be done with a correlated sub-select in the SELECT clause and in some cases that sometimes works better. Perhaps we shall show that approach in a later issue. We tend to prefer the look of the SELF JOIN though and in practice it is generally more efficient since its easier for planners to optimize and doesn't always result in a nested loop strategy. Just feels a little cleaner and if you are totaling a lot of columns (e.g number of items, products) etc, much more efficient. Postgres OnLine Journal. There are a couple of situations that come to mind where the standard behavior of crosstab of not putting like items in same column is useful. One example is when its not necessary to distiguish bucket names, but order of cell buckets is important such as when doing column rank reports. For example if you wanted to know for each item, which projects has it been used most in and you want the column order of projects to be based on highest usage. You would have simple labels like item_name, project_rank_1, project_rank_2, project_rank_3 and the actual project names would be displayed in project_rank_1, project_rank_2, project_rank_3 columns. Output of the above looks like: Friday, March 28. 2008. Wednesday, April 09. 2008. Setting up the .NET application. REST was first coined by Roy Fielding in his year 2000 doctoral thesis. Unlike things like Simple Object Access Protocol (SOAP), Distributed Component Object Model (DCOM), Common Object Request Broker Architecture (CORBA), it is not an architecture nor a protocol but rather a style of architecture. As a result, a lot of things that don't call themselves RESTFUL full under that umbrella or use some of the same concepts, or can arguably fall under that umbrella. Short Answer: Sort Of as Stored functions. For those who have not experienced the torture of this situation - let me start with a little background. First if you are running SQL Server 2005 32-bit and wished to create a linked server to a PostgreSQL server, everything is hunky dory. If however you had a SQL Server 2005 64-bit server, you ran into 2 very annoying obstacles. Obstacle 1: There for a long-time was no 64-bit ODBC driver nor native driver for PostgreSQL. This obstacle was somewhat alleviated when Fuurin Kazanbai made experimental compiled 64-bit PostgreSQL ODBC drivers available which work for AMD and Intel based processors. Obstacle 2: All looked good in the world until you tried this in SQL Server 2005 64-bit and low and behold - you needed a 64-bit OLEDB provider for ODBC to use it in SQL Server 2005 64-bit. Yes we waited patiently for years for this piece to be available. We still love you Microsoft. Then as Jeff Crumbley pointed out - Microsoft released an OLEDB 64-bit provider for ODBC in early April 2008. The new ROWS and COST declarations for a function. These can be used for any PostgreSQL function written in any language. These declarations allow the function designer to dictate to the planner how many records to expect and provide a hint as to how expensive a function call is. COST is measured in CPU cycles. A higher COST number means more costly. For example a high cost function called in an AND where condition will not be called if any of the less costly functions result in a false evaluation. The number of ROWs as well as COST will give the planner a better idea of which strategy to use. RETURN QUERY functionality was introduced as well and only applies to plpgsql written functions. This is both an easier as well as a more efficient way of returning query results in plpgsql functions. Hubert Lubazeuwski provides an example of this in set returning functions in 8.3. We shall provide yet another example of this. Server configuration parameters can now be set on a per-function basis. This is useful say in cases where you know a function will need a lot of work_mem, but you don't want to give all queries accessing the database that greater level of worker memory or you are doing something that index scan just works much better than sequential scan and you want to change the planners default behavior only for this function. Scrollable Cursors in PL/pgSQL - this is documented in Declaring Cursor Variables Plan Invalidation - Merlin Moncure covers this in PostgreSQL 8.3 Features: Plan Invalidation so we won't bother giving another example of this. Basic point to take away from this is that in procedures where you have stale plans floating dependent on tables being dropped by a function, those plans will be automagically deleted so you don't have ghost plans breaking your function. Result of the above looks as follows: Loading the database. REST has 4 basic features that differentiate/and it shares with similar Architectural styles. Client Stateless Server - As the name suggests - the state of an object is part of the message, and is commonly referred to as a stateless communication. It is not done with things like Session cookies where the server maintains some stateful view of the client and the client passes a session cookie saying (here is my ticket - give me my state). The server does not hold information about state, only the client. Right away one can tell - this can not work for all modes of communication that require immense amounts of state information to be maintained, but does have the advantage of should the application server hiccup or connection to the server times out or breaks only the current message is lost. It also works well for Web-Farms that are simply outputing data since the need for such Web-Farms to replicate state is not needed (think image caching networks such as Akamai). Client-Cache - The idea of client caching. The server can dictate certain requests as being cacheable and if cacheable a client can use the cache request to satisfy future similar requests instead of going back to the server. This saves on band-width but has disadvantage of possibly resulting in stale results. Keep in mind again this concept is not new and most webservers are designed to work that way and pass this info via http headers. Layered System - two way interaction. In a REST style architecture, there is a client and a server. The client is only dependent on the server it communicates with. It has no knowledge of the components the server uses to fulfill its request. That server can be a client in another REST interaction and keep its own cache to serve up like requests. This does not break the client keeps the cache rule as the server is acting as a client in this context. Think DNS . DNS is a perfect example of such a style where intermediaries cache requests for a certain period of time and act as clients to DNS servers further up the root and behave as servers to DNS and client computers below. Resource and Resource Identifiers - REST is predominantly a mechanism for accessing resources although it can be used for editing as well. The key element of it is a mechanism for defining resources, how a resource or grouping of resources are requested via a Resource Identifier (URL or URN), transfer of representation via (HTML, XML, Jpeg etc.), representational metadata (e.g. media type, last modified), control data (such as how long it can be cached). Yes this is pretty much a common concept in web interfaces. Stored Procedures in PostgreSQL. For our test data, we will be using our familiar inventory, inventory flow example. Code to generate structure and test data is shown below. Installing Tablefunc. If per chance you wanted to have a total row as well you could do it with a union query in your source sql. Unfotunately PostgreSQL does not support windowing functions that would make the row total not require a union. We'll leave that one as an exercise to figure out. In actuality the above query if you have an index on action_date is probably more efficient for larger datasets than the crosstab(source, category) example since it utilizes a date range condition for each month match. Tricking crosstab to give you more than one row header column. REST in PostgreSQL Part 2 B - The REST Server service with PHP 5. Friday, April 18. 2008. Beneath the croft of this dinkiness/dangerous toy is a RAD and Reporting tool that can connect to any database with an ODBC or ADO driver. It serves the unique niche of Empowering a knowledge worker/beginner programmer/DB user who is slowly discovering the wonders of relational databases and what time savings such a tool can provide. On the other side - it is inviting to the pragmatic (lazy) database programmer who has spent precious time to investigate its gems. The pragmatist sees it as a tool which provides a speedy development environment and intuitive reporting environment. It allows one to give more freedom to less experienced users, thus relieving one of tedious requests for information. By using it as a front-end to a strong server-side database such as PostgreSQL, it allows one to enforce a sufficient level of data integrity and control. The pragmatist realizes that often the best way to maintain order is to not fight disorder because the more you try to restrict people's freedoms, the craftier they get in devising ways of circumventing your traps. The pragmatic programmer also takes the view of Give a man a fish and he will pester you for more fish. Teach a man to fish and he will help you catch bigger fish. To skirt around this inconvenience one can write an SQL statement that guarantees you have a row for each permutation of Item, Month by doing a cross join. Below is the above written so item month usage fall in the appropriate buckets. Using crosstab(source_sql, category_sql) DML to generate DDL and DCL- Making structural and Permission changes to multiple tables. For this example we want to show the monthly usage of each inventory item for the year 2007 regardless of project. The crosstab we wish to achieve would have columns as follows: item_name, jan, feb, mar, apr, may, jun, jul, aug, sep, oct, nov, dec. How to calculate Running Totals and Sums in SQL. There are a couple of ways of doing this and approaches vary based on how big your table is, whether you have constraints in place, how programming intensive you want to go, whether you have a surrogate key and whether or not you have the luxury of taking a table down. Approaches vary from using subselects, dropping a table and rebuilding using a distinct query from temp table, and using non-set based approaches such as cursors. Building your own custom crosstab function. We shall use this fact to produce a total column. Sunday, March 16. 2008. Deleting Duplicate Records in a Table. Then you can write the above query as. Tuesday, February 26. 2008. Using MS Access with PostgreSQL. If month tabulations are something you do often, you will quickly become tired of writing out all the months. One way to get around this inconvenience - is to define a type and crosstab alias that returns the well-defined type something like below: Monday, February 04. 2008. Wednesday, February 13. 2008. Thursday, January 31. 2008. New Features for PostgreSQL Stored Functions. In this particular issue, we will introduce creating crosstab queries using PostgreSQL tablefunc contrib. People have asked us how to calculate running totals a number of times; not a lot but enough that we feel we should document the general technique. This approach is fairly ANSI-SQL standard and involves using SELF JOINS. In a later article we shall describe how to calculate moving averages which follows a similar technique but with some extra twists. Since we are just creating a simple REST web service and don't need any plumming of the standard SOAP like webservice, we will be using a .NET handler class (ashx) instead of an asmx. We have two versions listed below. One for C# and one for VB.NET/Mono Basic. This is a continuation of our REST series. The following topics have already been covered. Many in the PostgreSQL community use Microsoft Access as a front-end to their PostgreSQL databases. Although MS Access is strictly a windows application and PostgreSQL has its roots in Unix, the two go well together. A large part of that reason is because the PostgreSQL ODBC driver is well maintained and has frequent updates. You can expect one new ODBC driver release every 4-6 months. There exist only 32-bit production quality drivers. The 64-bit driver is of alpha quality. In addition to other front-ends to PostgreSQL that utilize the ODBC driver used by Windows developers, there is VB 6 (VB.NET/C# use the ADO.NET driver also very well maintained), Visual FoxPro, Delphi, to name a few). REST in PostgreSQL Part 1 - The DB components. Our REST service will be a thin wrapper around a pgsql function that accepts film queries and returns results in XML. PHP already has the PostgreSQL drivers available as a .so (on Linux) or .dll on Windows. For windows users if you are running PHP under IIS and in ISAPI mode, you will not be able to dynamically load libraries, so you need to enable php_pgsql in your PHP.ini file. Representationl State Transfer (REST) is a term to describe an architectural style of sharing information with consumers using already existing protocols such as HTTP. In the strictest sense of the term, the transport protocol need not be HTTP. Showcasing REST in PostgreSQL - The PreQuel we went over what REST is and isn't REST in PostgreSQL Part 1 - The DB components we loaded the Pagila database and created a db plpgsql search function that spits out XML to support our rest server service REST in PostgreSQL Part 2 A - The REST Server service with ASP.NET we demonstrated a REST web service using Mono.NET, MS.NET both in C#, VB.Net/Monobasic Now in this Part 2B series, we shall demonstrate the same REST server service using PHP. Constraint Exclusion is a feature introduced in PostgreSQL 8.1 which is used in conjunction with Table Inheritance to implement table partitioning strategies. The basic idea is you put check constraints on tables to limit what kind of data can be inserted into it. Constraint Exclusion will then in theory skip over tables whose check constraints guarantee there is no way for it to satisfy the condition of a query. Question: Does PostgreSQL support stored procedures? What is probably so alluring about REST is that it gives a catchy name to something a lot of people were doing already and describes how much of the web operates. Contrary to some popular belief, it is not NEW technology but rather a grouping of mainstream technology with a flashier name. Part of this confusion is that the cult following of REST is a fairly new phenomenon although the underpinnings are relatively old. The REST movement reflects a return back to the basics that prioritizes simplicity and accessibility over complexity and formality. Nowadays REST is most often used to refer to web services where resources are requested via plain URIs and GET requests, representations are returned in simple XML or JSON format and resources are created using POST, updated using PUT and deleted using DELETE HTTP verbs. This is similar to XML-RPC except that XML-RPC has a concept of state and everything is generally encoded in an XML message envelop. XML-RPC also uses POST for both updating and accessing resources unlike REST which tends to use GETS and URIS for resource access. The advantage of using get is that resources can be bookmarked. SOAP is similar to XML-RPC and in fact was born from the XML-RPC standard except the XML message streams are more complicated and formal, but arguably richer in functionality. What is Constraint Exclusion? MySQL has a similar feature by using syntax dbname.sometable, but MySQL lacks schemas so there is no way to segregate a database into nice buckets as you can with SQL Server and PostgreSQL. In this section we'll go over creating the views and stored functions that our REST Server service will rely on. Setting up our test data. CrossTab Queries in PostgreSQL using tablefunc contrib. We will be covering the following functions crosstab(source_sql, category_sql) crosstab(source_sql) Tricking crosstab to give you more than one row header column Building your own custom crosstab function similar to the crosstab3, crosstab4 etc. examples Adding a total column to crosstab query. Wednesday, March 12. 2008. We tend to keep it enabled regardless of which platform we are on since a lot of our PHP development involves PostgreSQL. The extension is php_pgsql in the php.ini file PHP has numerous database abstraction libraries to choose from. We are using the adodb abstraction library for PHP which can be downloaded from http://adodb.sourceforge.net/.

 

 

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